Category Archives: Historic Research

qiu jin: i die unfulfilled

11 Wednesday Oct 2017

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autumn rain/ autumn wind/ i die unfulfilled

Poetry translation is never an exact science. Taking a
concept, rich with metaphors, from one language and somehow then discovering a similar meaning in another has challenges. How does one
find that original essence – the core of what the poet was trying
to say – in an alien tongue? I have always found translation to be
a synthesis of everything that has been done before my attempt and
then a smoothing out of all the rough bits into something that sings
to me. If there was a philosophy to this it’d go: be illiterate in
all languages, just resonate with the soul of what is being said. I
suppose that is the difference between professionals and amateurs. I
will always be an amateur. To misquote the Japanese haiku poet Issa:
“there will always be farmers/ laboring in the fields/ I don’t
feel guilty.”

Today I turn my attention to the Chinese radical
feminist, revolutionary and martyr, Ch’iu Chin (better known through
modern translation as Qiu Jin). If you’ve never heard her name before
just know this: she was a lesbian poet who tried to overthrow the
Qing dynasty in 1907 and then was executed, beheaded. One day someone will
translate all her poetry, essays and speeches into English and that
will be a blessing. Just now I am only looking at her last words, her death poem. They’re
simple, they look like this:

秋风秋雨愁煞人

Technology fails us. According to Google Translate we
get, “Autumn autumn rain sad people.” which are at least English
words strung together in some sort of order. And they fail to capture
any meaning of this poem. First let me reprint the best translation
that I’ve found:

Autumn rain, autumn wind/ I die of sorrow.

[from the documentary, Autumn Gem]

Now let me tell you why this is so good. Ch’iu Chin’s
name literally translates into, “Autumn Gem,” and the ‘autumn’ is
the metaphor that works in this poem. By the time of her arrest she
was burned out, depressed and had realized that her revolutionary
goals would never happen. She let herself be captured and executed so
that she could become one of the Chinese heroines of myth who rose up
to fight for women during times of oppression.

As one says, there are no bad translations, just
different interpretations. I point this out simply because these are faithful to the word but the translators did not seem to know why
they were written:

O Autumn Winds chilly, O Autumn Rains chilly, (Why you
are spilling)


Frank C Yue

Autumn wind autumn rain makes one gloomy


Lu Yin

For whom does the autumn rain and wind lament?


Sjcma 

All of which, out of context, still works. Getting
executed would make one gloomy and spill. Then there is the fact that Ch’iu
Chin became a symbol for the 1911 Revolution and her words were used
to express the woes of other people, and thus we get the royal ‘we’


Autumn wind and rain have brought overwhelming grief to
many


Albert Chan 


The sorrow of autumn wind and autumn rain kills


China Heritage Quarterly

Again, this is all just a matter of interpretation of
what comes before. Like I said, I can’t read Chinese, I can just
guesstimate from the works of others. If I’m wrong then I’m wrong
and this was just a curious post that won’t mean anything. Still, I
love the poetry of Qiu Jin and if I can be part of helping her find
an English audience then let us say that my day was good. Two translations that I think are kind
of marvelous:

Autumn wind and autumn rain often bring forth unbearable
sorrow


Alan Cykok 

The autumn wind and autumn rain agonize me so much.


Badass Women of Asia 

ch’iu chin: i die unfulfilled

11 Wednesday Oct 2017

Posted by in Chinese, Feminism, Historic Research, Poetry, Translation

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autumn rain/ autumn wind/ i die unfulfilled

Poetry translation is never an exact science. Taking a concept, rich with metaphors, from one language and somehow then discovering a similar meaning in another has challenges. How does one find that original essence – the core of what the poet was trying to say – in an alien tongue? I have always found translation to be a synthesis of everything that has been done before my attempt and then a smoothing out of all the rough bits into something that sings to me. If there was a philosophy to this it’d go: be illiterate in all languages, just resonate with the soul of what is being said. I suppose that is the difference between professionals and amateurs. I will always be an amateur. To misquote the Japanese haiku poet Issa: “there will always be farmers/ laboring in the fields/ I don’t feel guilty.”

Today I turn my attention to the Chinese radical feminist, revolutionary and martyr, Ch’iu Chin (better known through modern translation as Qiu Jin). If you’ve never heard her name before just know this: she was a lesbian poet who tried to overthrow the Qing dynasty in 1907 and then was executed, beheaded. One day someone will translate all her poetry, essays and speeches into English and that will be a blessing. Just now I am only looking at her last words, her death poem. They’re simple, they look like this:

秋风秋雨愁煞人

Technology fails us. According to Google Translate we get, “Autumn autumn rain sad people.” which are at least English words strung together in some sort of order. And yet they fail to capture any meaning of these words. First let me reprint the best translation that I’ve found:

Autumn rain, autumn wind/ I die of sorrow.
[from the documentary, Autumn Gem]

Now let me tell you why this is so good. Ch’iu Chin’s name literally translates into, “Autumn Gem,” and the ‘autumn’ is the metaphor that works in this poem. By the time of her capture she was burned out, depressed and had realized that her revolutionary goals would never happen. She let herself be captured and executed so that she could become one of the Chinese heroines of myth who rose up to fight for women during times of oppression.

As one says, there are no bad translations, just different interpretations. I point out these simply because they were faithful to the words on the page but the translators did not seem to know why the words were written:

O Autumn Winds chilly, O Autumn Rains chilly, (Why you are spilling)
Frank C Yue

Autumn wind autumn rain makes one gloomy
Lu Yin, from Imagining Sisterhood in Modern Chinese Texts, 1890–1937

For whom does the autumn rain and wind lament?
Sjcma

All of which, out of context, still works. Getting executed would make one gloomy. Then there is the fact that Ch’iu Chin became a symbol for the 1911 Revolution and her words were used to express the woes of other people, and thus we get the royal ‘we’

Autumn wind and rain have brought overwhelming grief to many
Albert Chan

The sorrow of autumn wind and autumn rain kills
China Heritage Quarterly

Again, this is all just a matter of interpretation of what comes before. Like I said, I can’t read Chinese, I can just guesstimate from the works of others. If I’m wrong … then I’m wrong and this was just a curious post won’t mean anything. Still, I love the poetry of Qiu Jin and if I can be part of helping her find an English audience then my day is good. Two translations that I think are kind of marvelous:

Autumn wind and autumn rain often bring forth unbearable sorrow
Alan Cykok

The autumn wind and autumn rain agonize me so much.
Badass Women of Asia

black submariners of world war 2

15 Thursday Jan 2015

Posted by in Black Submariners, Historic Research

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January 15, 2015 (2)

January 15, 2015 (3)

January 15, 2015 (1)

I forget which esteemed movie critic said it, but I recall someone stating that one of the more damning critiques of the WWII submarine action-drama, U-571 (2000), was the “political correctness” of including a Black submariner as part of the American naval crew. After all, the gazette’s editor wrote, everyone knew that the US Armed Forces were segregated at the time, there never would have been a Black sailor on a submarine.

As it turns out I live near the USS Silversides Maritime Museum in Muskegon, Michigan, where the actual submarine is permanently docked. On one of my visits to the Museum I purchased their “Illustrated Record” of the submarine’s wartime tour and there, on page 6, was a photo proving the movie critic wrong. “Mess Attendant Anderson Royal keeps deck hands supplied with coffee on early war patrol,” the caption declared. This fascinated me; had the US Navy been somehow progressive at a time when the rest of the United States wasn’t? From there I started doing research to find out more about Black submariners.

It is true that even after Imperial Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor while the United States geared up to go to war the US Military continued to pig-headedly embrace segregation within its ranks. The Tuskegee airmen, the Black army units in Europe, the Black marines in the Pacific – none of these existed in 1941. One of the few volunteer branches an African-American man who wanted to see action could join, however, was the Navy’s submarine service and become a “Fighting Mess Attendant” (Knoblock, 13). By the end of the war over 950 men served as Stewards, Mess Attendants and Officer’s Cooks; and it was through submarine duty that Black sailors participated in every major naval engagement of the Pacific War, from Pearl Harbor’s December 7, 1941 to the surrender of Japan, August 12, 1945.

“Here was the irony of their situation – they were officially condemned to what was thought to be a simple rate yet they qualified in submarines which meant that they had to know the complexity of every system on the boat. In actual practice these men served in a variety of submarine jobs including Helmsmen, Planesmen, Gunners, and Torpedomen. Officially, they were qualified Stewards, but they served their boats in whatever way was needed.” (Submarine Research Center, 2013)

Remembering those who came before us is very important to me. As George Eliot put it, “Our dead are never dead to us, until we have forgotten them.” I have complied a listing of all the African-American sailors killed in action on submarines during WWII. If a photo is available it is noted with [*]. Much of the information here comes from Charles R. Hinman’s fascinating website, On Eternal Patrol, which documents submariners of all races lost while serving in the US Navy. Glenn A. Knoblock’s Black Submariners in the United States Navy is another invaluable source, featuring interviews of many submariners who survived the war.

][][

USS O-9 (SS-70. Lost June 20, 1941, off Portsmouth, New Hampshire)
John Henry Edwards, Mess Attendant, Third Class

USS R-12 (SS-89)
Willie Daniel Young, Steward’s Mate, Second Class [*]

USS S-26 (SS-131. Lost Jan 24, 1942, Gulf of Panama)
Nathaniel Noble Johnson, Mess Attendant, First Class

USS S-28 (SS-133. Lost July 4, 1944, off Hawaii)
Levi Bolton, Steward’s Mate, First Class
Jake Spurlock, Cook, Second Class [*]

USS S-33 (SS-138. Killed Nov 7, 1943, San Diego, California)
Samuel Edward Freeman, Jr., Ship’s Cook, Second Class [*]

USS S-44 (SS-155. Lost Oct 7, 1943, off Paramushiru, Northern Kuriles)
Curtis Glenn, Cook, Second Class [*]
Herman Mondell Mitchell, Steward’s Mate, Second Class [*]

USS ALBACORE (SS-218. Lost Nov 7, 1944, off northern Japan)
James Louis Carpenter, Steward’s Mate, Second Class
Willie Alexander McNeill, Steward’s Mate, Second Class

USS AMBERJACK (SS-219. Lost Feb 16, 1943, off Rabaul)
Arthur Ray Massey, Steward’s Mate, Second Class [*]
Wallace Montague, Jr., Steward’s Mate, First Class

USS ARGONAUT (SS-166. Lost Jan 10, 1943, off Rabaul)
Percy James Olds, Steward, Second Class [*]
Willie David Thomas, Officer’s Cook, Second Class [*]

USS BARBEL (SS-316. Lost Feb 4, 1945, mid-Pacific)
Nathaniel Thornton, Steward’s Mate, First Class
Arthur Wharton, Jr., Steward’s Mate, First Class

USS BONEFISH (SS-223. Lost June 18, 1945, Toyama Bay, Honshu, Japan)
Quintus Leon Cooley, Steward’s Mate, Second Class
William Henry Epps, Jr., Steward’s Mate, Second Class

USS BULLHEAD (SS-332. Lost Aug 6, 1945, west end of Lombok Strait)
Hubert Byron Hackett, Steward’s Mate, Second Class
Percy Johnson, Jr., Steward’s Mate, First Class [*]

USS CAPELIN (SS-289. Lost Dec 2, 1943, off Celebes, possibly off Kaoe Bay)
Earl Cheatham, Steward’s Mate, First Class
Finon Perry, Steward’s Mate, Second Class

USS CISCO (SS-290. Lost Sept 28, 1943, in Sulu Sea west of Mindanao, Philippines)
Samuel Nelson, Steward, Second Class [*]
Albert Wade Williams, Steward’s Mate, First Class

USS CORVINA (SS-226. Lost Nov 16, 1943, south of Truk)
Russell Alexander Brooks, Steward’s Mate, First Class
Eddie Jackson, Ship’s Cook, Second Class

USS DORADO (SS-248. Lost Oct 12, 1943, perhaps in the Caribbean Sea)
Isaac Cabase, Steward’s Mate, First Class [*]
Dewitt Harris, Steward’s Mate, Second Class [*]

USS ESCOLAR (SS-294. Oct 17, 1944, Pacific)
Benjamin Evans, Steward’s Mate, First Class [*]
James Arthur Raley, Steward’s Mate, Second Class [*]

USS FLIER (SS-250. Lost Aug 13, 1944, in Balabac Strait near Mantangule Island)
Clyde Banks, Ship’s Cook, Third Class [*]
John Clyde Turner, Steward’s Mate, First Class (7 war patrols) [*]

USS GOLET (SS-361. Lost June 14, 1944, Pacific)
William Evorn McCulough, Jr., Steward’s Mate, First Class
George Sterling, Jr., Steward, Third Class

USS GRAMPUS (SS-207. Lost March 5, 1943, in or near Blackett Strait)
Curtheal Black, Officer’s Steward, Third Class (6 war patrols) [*]
Donald Massey Fenner, Mess Attendant, First Class (6 war patrols) [*]

USS GROWLER (SS-215. Lost Nov 8, 1944, South China Sea)
Bennie Cleveland, Steward, Third Class (6 war patrols) [*]
Willie Flippens, Steward’s Mate, Second Class

USS GRUNION (SS-216. Lost July 30, 1942, near entrance to Kiska Harbor, Alaska)
Herbert Joseph Arvan, Mess Attendant, Second Class
Cornelius Paul, Jr., Mess Attendant, Second Class

USS HARDER (SS-257. Lost Aug 24, 1944, off Caiman Point near Bataan, RPI)
James Edward Cromwell, Steward’s Mate, Second Class [*]
Robert Moore, Ship’s Cook, Second Class [*]

USS HERRING (SS-233. Lost June 1, 1944, near Point Tagan, Matsuwa Island, Kuriles)
Timothy Burkett, Cook, First Class (8 war patrols) [*]
Nathaniel Campbell, Steward’s Mate, Second Class
Louis Hill Jones, Steward’s Mate, First Class [*]

USS KETE (SS-369. Lost March 20, 1945, between 29-38N 130-02E and Midway)
William Howard Dawson, Cook, Third Class
Calvin Frederick Dortche, Steward’s Mate, First Class

USS LAGARTO (SS-371. Lost May 4, 1945, off Malay coast near the Gulf of Siam)
Robert Green, Steward’s Mate, Second Class
Albert Kirtley, Steward’s Mate, First Class [*]

USS POMPANO (SS-181. Lost Sept 17, 1943, northeast coast of Honshu, Japan)
Sherman Ganious, Steward’s Mate, First Class [*]
Wesley Lewis Leonard, Steward’s Mate, First Class (6 war patrols) [*]

USS ROBALO (SS-273. Lost July 26, 1944, two miles off west coast of Palawan Island, PI)
Elliott Gleaton, Jr., Cook, Second Class (8 war patrols) [*]
Davie Lee Williams, Steward’s Mate, First Class

USS RUNNER (SS-275. Lost July 11, 1943, north of Hokkaido, Japan)
Charles Laws, Steward’s Mate, Second Class [*]

USS SCAMP (SS-277. Lost Nov 16, 1944, off Inubo Saki near Tokyo Bay)
Odie Bass, Steward’s Mate, Second Class [*]

USS SCORPION (SS-278. Lost Feb 1, 1944, South China Sea)
Raymond Palmer Dews, Steward’s Mate, First Class [*]
Nearest Fergerson, Steward, Third Class [*]

USS SHARK 2 (SS-314. Lost Oct 24, 1944, between Hainan and Bashi Channel)
Richard Edward Hooker, Steward’s Mate, First Class
George Washington Pittman, Cook, Second Class [*]

USS SNOOK (SS-279. Lost April 9, 1945, Pacific)
William James Rodney, Steward’s Mate, First Class [*]
William Everett Shelton, Steward, Third Class (6 war patrols)

USS SWORDFISH (SS-193. Lost Jan 12, 1945, near Yaku Island off Kyushu, Japan)
Vernon Kirk, Steward, Third Class [*]
William Penn Grandy, Steward’s Mate, First Class [*]

USS TANG (SS-306. Lost Oct 25, 1944, Formosa Strait near Turnabout Island)
Ralph Francis Adams, Steward’s Mate, First Class [*]
Rubin MacNiel Raiford, Cook, Second Class, First Class [*]
Howard Madison Walker, Steward, Third Class [*]

USS TRIGGER (SS-237. Lost March 28, 1945, Pacific)
Andrew Jordan Carter, Steward’s Mate, First Class
Nathaniel Elton Thompson, Cook, Second Class (12 war patrols) [*]

USS TRITON (SS-201. Lost March 15, 1943, between Rabaul and Shortlands Basin)
John Davis Dabney, Officer’s Cook, Third Class (6 war patrols)
Herman Thurmon McCalop, Mess Attendant, First Class

USS TROUT (SS-202. Lost Feb 29, 1944, east of the Philippines Basin)
John Edward Ewell, Steward’s Mate, Second Class
Albert Sylvester Lewis, Steward’s Mate, Second Class
Calvin Coolidge Millner, Steward’s Mate, First Class[*]

USS TULLIBEE (SS-284. Lost March 26, 1944, north of Pelews)
LeRoy Ellis, Steward, First Class [*]
Ripley Washington, Jr., Steward’s Mate, First Class (9 war patrols)

][][

Works Cited and Suggested Reading:

Edgerton, Robert B. Hidden heroism: Black soldiers in America’s wars. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press. (2001)

Hinman, Charles R. On Eternal Patrol (www.oneternalpatrol.com)

Knoblock, Glenn A. Black submariners in the United States Navy, 1940-1975. Jefferson, N.C.; London: McFarland. (2005)

Sherlock, Martin. United States Submarine Data Book. Groton, CT.: Submarine Force Library and Museum Assoc. (1976)

National Archives – Military Personnel Records Center.

USS Silversides SS236: an illustrated record of Silverside’s War Patrol Period December 1941-August 1945. Muskegon, MI: USS Silversides & Maritime Museum. (1998)

United States Navy. Steward’s Mates. Washington DC: Governmental Printing Office (1946)

United States Submarine Losses In World War II (www.subsowespac.org/united-states-submarine-losses-in-world-war-ii.shtml)

a small dictionary of shark gods and goddesses from around the world

17 Wednesday Apr 2013

Posted by in Historic Research

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spirit shark

A SMALL DICTIONARY OF SHARK GODS AND GODDESSES

“like the shark … uttering cries that are almost human.”

.

A ~

.

‘Ai-kanaka (Hawaii) Also known as: Mano ai Kanaka. A god of killer sharks. Some folklore has ‘Ai-kanaka as a symbol of the high chiefs. A terrible drought had seized the island, and storms raged off the coast. [The cultural hero] Makaha scaled Mauna Lahilahi and called loudly to his ‘aumakua, Mano ai Kanaka, the most vicious of man-eating sharks. As ‘Ai-kanaka glided in from the ocean, Makaha dived from the rocky pinnacle, emerged on ‘Ai-kanaka’s back and rode with regal grandeur. As the two disappeared into the depths, the sea became calm. (Beckwith, 1970; Kealanahele, 1975; Pukui, 1971)

.

B ~

.

Baabenga (Bellona, Rennell, Solomon Islands) A shark deity who may have, at one time, been two separate entities, since Baabenga appears as both female or male, playing mischievous tricks on island dwellers. On Bellona Island, she is the daughter of Mauloko and sister of Tehanine’angiki and Teangaitak. On Rennell Island, however, he is the son of Tehainga’atua and Sikingimoemore. (Craig, 1989)

.

Barâo de Goré (Belem, Brazil) Believed to be a shark god. Father of Gorezinho. (Leach, 1992)

.

C ~

.

Ca Ong (Vietnam) Also known as: Ga Ong. Lord Fish. The sacred whale shark. In the provinces Quang Nam and Danang its bones are taken to selected temples and given sacred burials. There are accounts of little altars beseeching the protection of Ca Ong, which can be seen on sand dunes all along the central and southern Vietnamese coast, close to wrecked tanks and other relics of their war. The festival of Lord Fish is several days in duration and takes place in the middle of the third lunar month. The fishermen decorate their houses, their boats and the temple with signs of the whale [shark]. The elder ones of the village make the ceremony of peace the first evening of the festival. The next morning, at dawn, the fishermen ravel in boats. At midnight, the children make burn accompanied incense professional singers and orchestra. The festival ends with the return of the boats [to Quang Nam]. (Landes, 1886; McCormick, 1963)

.

D ~

.

Dakuwanqa (Fiji) Shark god who was the eater of lost souls. (Bakker, 1925; Knappert, 1992; Wall, 1918) Dogfish Woman (Haida Gwaii, Canada) Shark goddess. A powerful figure in the folklore of beings of the sea; Dogfish Woman is related in a story of a woman who could transform herself into a shark, and in this form she enters into the other-realm of knowledge, the undersea world. The dogfish is a small variety of shark that inhabits the waters of the North Coast, including those of Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia. Various tribes have a system to identify important figures in their art, and the dogfish is recognized by its gill slits as crescents, crescent shaped mouth, depressed at corners and filled with saw-like teeth. An old medicine man living near the end of Cape Flattery on the north coast recorded a song addressed to the goddess with these words: “Where are you, on whose back the waves break?” (Basti, 2002)

.

F ~

.

Fa’arsva’i-te-ra’i (Tahiti) A handsome blue shark god, messenger of the great god Ta’aroa.(Henry, 1928)

.

H ~

.

Haku nui (Hawaii) A shark god, whose name translates as: Big Boss. (Holt, 1993)

.

Hal-ku-ta-da (Arizona, American Southwest) The shark who came up from the Gulf of California to help the Mojaves. Brother of Kuyu, Pathraxsatta and Pacuchi. (Leach, 1992)

.

Heiau (Hawaii) Shrines near the shoreline said to be the locations shark-gods visit. (Taylor, 1993)

.

K ~

.

Ka’ahu pahau (Hawaii) Also known as: K’ahu pahay, Oahu. Shark goddess with her defining feature being her red hair. She lives in a cave with her brother (or son?) Ku-hai-moana at the mouth of Pearl Harbor. Because she had human parents, she is compassionate to humans and protects them from other dangerous sharks. There is a legend that tells of Ka’ahupahau’s defense of her waters against Mikololou, a man-eating shark from the Big Island. (Beckwith, 1940; Craig, 1989; Emerson, 1968; Leach, 1992; Pukui and Green, 1995; Steel, 1985)

.

Ka-ehu-iki-mano-o-pu’uloa (Hawaii) Little brown (or blond, depending on the story) shark god who guards the entrance to Pearl Harbor but was originally from Puna. Born of human parents he was reared on kava root mixed with his mother’s milk. He was named for the redheaded ehu, of Ka-ahupahau, the queen of the Pearl Harbor sharks gods. Together, with Ka-panila, Kaneilehia, Mano-kini, Ka-pu-lena and Kua, he travels to Tahiti to pay visit the King of All Sharks, Ka-moho-ali, and his Queen, Ka-ahu-pahau. Along the way he battles King Kau-huhu, a violent and bad tempered shark. When Ka-ehu-iki-mano-o-pu’uloa returned, he found Pehu, another killer shark, off Waikiki. He lured the god to shore where the local people attacked and killed him. (Beckwith, 1948; Colum, 1937; Craig, 1989; Thrum, 1923)

.

Kahoi-a-kane (Hawaii) Also known as: Kaholia-kane Shark god. Worshipped by the high chief Ka-lani-opu’u at the time of the kingdom of Kamehameha (1819). The shark lived in a cave at Puhi, Kaua’i. Kahoi-a-kane was known as a powerful god at Ka’u. (Pukui, 1971; Taylor, 1993)

.

Kahu Mano (Hawaii) Shark Keeper. In the complex rituals to deify a recently deceased family member, the Kahu Mano who performed these rites was either a relative or a kahuna [priest]: “The bones were wrapped in tapa…then the family would go down to the sea and pray and give offerings (food and awa). Then, it was believed, the shark would come and take this bundle of bones right under its pectoral fin. The shark would hold the bones there. Then for a while the family would keep coming back with offerings, until the bundle of bones took the form of a shark.” (Taylor, 1993)

.

Kak Ne Xoc (Maya, Yucatan, Mexico) A five-tailed shark god and god of fishermen (Leach, 1992)

.

Kamohoali’i (Hawaii) Also known as: Kalahiki. Shark god. The people of Hawaii, the ancient land, had personal family gods. Kamohoali’i was one of the most favorite for those whose work had to do with the sea. Worshiped as an aumakua [deified ancestral spirits] Kamohoali’i appeared in human form naked, a sign of divinity. As a shark, Kamohoali’i enjoyed lounging in the deep waters around Maui, especially in the narrow, swift straight between the island and the tapu, the sacred island of Kahoolawe, where most knew him by another name, Kalahiki. His favorite trick was to find the fleet of fishing canoes when they were out of sight of land and get them hopelessly lost. Kalahiki would then swim in front of the lead boat and shake his tail. The kahuna of the fleet, a man learned in the ways of the shark gods, would then order that awa be fed to Kalahiki. This potion, made from bitter roots fermented into a strong drink, greatly pleased the god. He would then reward the people by leading them back home through the fog and mist that often covered the waters. At one point he had a heiau (temple or shrine) dedicated to him on every piece of land that jutted into the ocean on the island of Moloka’i. It is said that a man had to be careful which shark he chose as his god: some sharks were just simple eaters-of-all, who were called itchy-mouthed, or uhinipili. There are many tales of large boats sinking in the waters around Maui, with none surviving to tell of their encounter with either Kalahiki or the uhinipili. (Anderson, 1969; Taylor, 1993)

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Ka-naka-o-kai (Hawaii) A guardian shark of the island of Maui. (Leach, 1992)

.

Kane’apua (Hawaii) Shark god. A trickster kupua (demigod) described variously as a brother of Pele, as a younger shark brother of Kane and Kanaloa, and as a fish god of Kaunolu, Lana’i, where a nearby islet is named for him. He angered Kane and Kanaloa by urinating in their water, and they flew away as birds. Wahanui (great mouth), a voyager bound for Kahiki, passed Kaunolu Point and Kane’apua hailed him. Wahanui replied that his canoe was full, but when Kane raised a storm, he took Kane’apua aboard. Kane’apua quieted two kupua hills, Paliuli (dark cliff) and Palikea (white cliff), that clashed together, destroying canoes, and he performed many other feats. (Taylor, 1993)

.

Kanehuna-moku (Hawaii) A guardian shark of Maui. (Leach, 1992)

.

Kane-i-ko-kala (Hawaii) A benign shark god who saved people from shipwrecks. The kokala fish is sacred to him. (Beckwith, 1970; Leach, 1992)

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Kapaaheo (Hawaii) Also known as: Kohala Shark Stone. This shark-shaped stone monument is currently located at the Bishop Museum. One time, it seems, Hawaiian girls vanished while swimming from their favorite swimming beach in one of the island, beautiful bays, and these disappearances coincided with sightings of a mysterious stranger in the area. When local fishermen armed with spears went into the water with the girls, they were able to fend off an attacking shark, seriously wounding it. Not long after, the unknown stranger was found on the beach dying of stab wounds and, when he expired, he turned into the Kapaaheo. (Steel, 1985)

.

Kau-huhu (Hawaii) Shark god. There are many tales concerning this god, illustrating both his valuable and dire qualities. A high chief had two boys killed for playing with his drums. Their father Kamalo sought the help of the shark god Kau-huhu to get revenge. Kau-huhu told the man to build a special fence around his place and to collect 400 black pigs, 400 red fish, and 400 white chickens. Months later, Kau-huhu came in the form of a cloud. He caused a great storm which washed everyone on the hillside, except Kamalo and his people, into the harbor, where sharks devoured them. (Leach, 1992; Westervelt, 1963)

.

Kau-naha-ili-pakapaka (Hawaii) A beneficent shark god. (Leach, 1992; Westervelt, 1963)

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Ka-welo (Hawaii) Deified shark god. A warrior-hero of Kauai who was a kupua and who performed prodigious feats of strength and bravery, throwing spears, hurling rocks, catching giant fish. Ka-welo’s elder brother was Ka-welomahamaha-i’a, a great chief of Kaua’i whose heiau was dedicated to the king of the shark-gods, Ka-moho-ali’i, and who was himself worshiped as a shark-god after his death. (Pukui & Curtis, 1997)

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Kawelomahamahai’a (Hawaii) An older brother of Kawelo, who was turned into a shark and was worshiped. (Taylor, 1996)

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Ke-ali’i-kau-o-ka-u (Hawaii) Shark god who protects humans against other vicious sharks. Cousin to the fire goddess Pele. He had an affair with a beautiful young human of Waikapuna, Ka’u, and she gave birth to a beneficent green shark. (Beckwith, 1970; Taylor, 1993)

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Ke-pani-la (Hawaii) A shark-god of Puna, said to be so huge that when he rose to the surface of the sea his back was higher than the tiny island of Kaula, southwest of Niihau, named for the red-tailed borun bird. (Pukui & Curtis, 1997)

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Kua (Hawaii) Also known as: Kua’a-Wakea. A shark god called the king shark of Ka’u and the ancestor of numerous Ka’u folk. With Kaholia-Kane he raised a storm between Kaua’i and Oahu to prevent the marriage of their divine relative, Pele, and Lohau, a mortal. (Beckwith, 1970; Leach, 1992; Taylor, 1996)

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Ku-hai-moana (Hawaii) Shark god. Also known as: Kah’uka, Kuheimoana or Ku following ocean. He was brother to Pele and husband (or son?) of the shark goddess Ka’ahu-pahau. His name means, Smiting Tail; his shark tail was used to strike at enemy sharks. He also used his tail to strike fishermen as a warning that unfriendly sharks had entered Pu’uloa. Kah’uka lived in an underwater cave off Moku’ume’ume (Ford Island) near Keanapua, a Point at the entrance of East Loch; he also had the form of an underwater stone. An older legend said he was said to be thirty fathoms long. (Beckwith, 1970; Sterling and Summers, 1978; Taylor, 1993)

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Kumano (Hawaii) The “chiefly sport” of shark riding. Before sharks were hunted, the ancient fishermen of Hawaii would pray to begin the shark hunting ceremony. Sometimes, human flesh was used as bait for sharks. The Hawaiians would troll the bait of the back of a canoe, and then rope the shark with a series of nooses once it went for the bait. The shark was either dragged to shore, or it was ridden. (Beckwith, 1917)

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Mamala (Oahu, Hawaii) A queen who was of kupua or “shark woman” character. This meant that she was a shark as well as a beautiful woman, and could assume whichever shape she most desired. She was married to the shark-man Ouha. She was also a legendary surfer, and her fame was such that the surf where she rode bore the name Ke-kai-o Mamala [The sea of Mamala]: When the Sun rose high it was called Ka-nuku-o-Mamala [The nose of Mamala]. (Westervelt, 1915)

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Mami (Lau Islands, Fiji, Melanesia) Shark god who could take human shape. (Beckwith, 1970; Leach, 1992)

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Mango-Roa-i-Ata (Maori, New Zealand) The Long Shark at Dawn. The Milky Way. Maui caught this shark when he was fishing up the islands. He threw it up into the nighttime sky. (Knappert, 1992)

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Manjerowuli (Iwaidja, Australia) Shark-man totem. (Spencer, 1968)

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Ma-o-purotu (Tahiti) There are two versions of who Ma-o-purotu is. In one he is the pet shark of the hero Tane. In another tale he is a shark god that lives in the sky. (Henry, 1928; Leach, 1992)

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Mo-ana-li-ha (Hawaii) Deified man-eating shark located off Maui. (Ashdown, 1971)

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Mohoalii (Ohau, Hawaii) A shark god. (Westerveslt, 1963)

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Nanaue (Hawaii) Shark-man. This god lived on the Big Island until he was discovered and the demigod Unauna wrestled with him to the death. Kamohoali’i and a mortal woman named Kalei were his parents. Their child was the boy Nanaue and [he] bore on his back a mark like a shark’s mouth. Kamohoali’i gave strict instructions that the boy was never under nay circumstances to be given meat, but one day this commandment was disobeyed. As soon as the meat passed his lips, Nanaue discovered the power to change himself into a shark. Craving more meat, he cruised the beaches in shark form and killed his full of the islanders until at last he was caught. Nanaue’s shark-body was taken to a hill at Kainaliu, which thereafter became known as Pumano, Shark Hill. (Craig, 1989; Steel, 1985)

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Nevi Yanan (Java, Indonesia) A sea-god who appeared in the form of a shark. (Knappert, 1992)

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Ngaru-mangooo (Anuta; Solomon Islands) Literally, a wave of sharks. It is used as a poetic expression when being set upon by a large school of sharks. (Feinberg, 1998)

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Nohi-Abassi (Warren Indians, South America) The constellation of Orion in native mythology resembles and symbolizes a man’s leg being bitten off: [It is] the missing leg of Nohi-Abassi, a man who tried to get rid of his mother-in-law by training a murderous shark to devour her. However, his leg was cut off by his sister-in-law, perhaps a shark herself, and he died. His leg ended up in one part of the sky, and his body in another. (McCormick, 1963)

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Ouha (Hawaii) A shark-god. He was married to the legendary surfer Mamala, until she left him. He made his home in the ocean near Koko Head, where Mamala and Ouha drank awa together. The chief, Hono-kau-pu, chose to take Mamala as his wife, so she left Ouha and lived with her new husband. Ouha was angry and tried at first to injure Hono and Mamala, but he was driven away. He fled to the lake Ka-ihi-Kapu toward Waikiki. There he appeared as a man with a basketful of shrimps and fresh fish, which he offered to the women of that place, saying, Here is life [i.e., a living thing] for the children. He opened his basket, but the shrimps and the fish leaped out and escaped into the water. The women ridiculed the god-man. As the ancient legendary characters of all Polynesia could not endure anything that brought shame or disgrace upon them in the eyes of others, Ouha fled from the taunts of the women, casting off his human form, and dissolving his connection with humanity. Thus he became the great shark-god of the coast between Waikiki and Koko Head. (Westervelt, 1915)

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Pau-walu (Hawaii) Shark-man that once lived at Wailua, Maui. He warned fishermen that some of them would be killed on their voyage. Several villagers threw him into their fire as a consequence. (Craig, 1989)

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Poinamu (Maori, New Zealand) A shark god #%G–#%@ the masculine personification of jade. In Maori folklore jade suppose to form the soft state inside of the shark and only hardens once exposed to air. He is the son of Tangaroa and Anu-matao and the twin of Poutini. (Leach, 1992)

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Poutini (Maori, New Zealand) A shark goddess. The twin of Poinamu and thus the female personification of jade. (Leach, 1992)

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Sa’me-Hito (Japan) Also known as: Sa’me’bito. A black monster with green glowing eyes and a spiky beard like a dragon. It was confronted by the hero Totaro on the Long Bridge. But, instead of attacking him as one might expect from a monster that is half-shark (sa’me translates as shark) and half-man, it entreated him to give it food and shelter, for the Sea King had expelled it from the ocean. Totaro took Sa’me’bito to the lake near his own castle where he fed it. (Knappert, 1992)

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Sautahimatawa (Ulawa, Solomon Islands, Melanesia) A shark spirit to whom sacrifices were made for help in fishing for the bonitos fish. (Leach, 1992)

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Seketoa (Tonga) Shark spirit. A nobleman who became a benevolent shark. The descendants of Maatu, the chief of [the island] Niuatoputapu have the right to call on Seketoa and Seketoa will help them. When Maatu wants to speak with Seketoa he sends out his matapules (assistants) and they throw some kava root into the sea. Then two remoras [fish that live and will even ride on sharks] will come to the kava roots. These two remoras are the matapules of Seketoa. After the two remoras come they will go away, then a small shark comes and goes away. Then a larger shark comes and goes away. Finally a great big shark comes. This is Seketoa. Then Maatu, the chief, will speak with Seketoa. (Beckwith, 1970; Craig, 1989)

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Skalugsuak (Greenland) A creation legend: All other Greenland fishes were created from chips of wood, but the Greenland shark smells so strongly of ammonia, its origin is different. Long ago, as legend has it, an old woman washed her hair with urine and was drying it with a cloth. A gust of wind carried the cloth to sea and there it turned into Skalugsuak, the Greenland shark. (Ellis, 2003)

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Ta-hui (Tahiti) Shark god. (Henry, 1928)

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Takea (Mangaia, Rarotonga) Sharks god. Assisted the goddess ‘Ina to the island of Motu-tapu. (Anderson, 1969)

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Tama-opu-rua (Tahiti) Shark god. Ancestor to the female demon Fe’e-matotiti. (Henry, 1928)

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Tane-ma’o (Tahiti) Shark god. In the epic of Hilo, Tane-o revenged the murder of Tane’s little red bird by swallowing Hilo’s companions. (Henry, 1928)

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Taufa (Tonga) Also known as: Taufatahi. Shark god. (Leach, 1992)

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Tere-mahiamaa-hiva (Tahiti) Shark ancestor to the hero Kaha’i who accompanies him on his exploits around the Pacific. (Henry, 1928)

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Tinirau (Greater Polynesia) Also known as: Tini Rau, Kinilau, Sinilau and Tinilau. The god of the ocean and fish, also known as The Swallower. He is a double-natured god who can appear as a terrifying fish (the Shark-God), with its mouth wide open and ready to devour its prey, or as a handsome young man. In the latter appearance, his right side is occasionally human and the left side piscine. He has n affair with (or is married to) Hina-Keha, the Moon-goddess. She always supplies him and his people with plenty of fish. (Knappert, 1992)

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Tumu-i-te-are-Toka (Mangaia) A great shark god. (Leach, 1992)

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‘Unihokahi (Hawaii) A one-toothed shark god. Legend has it this god belonged to the waters of Kahaloa at Waikiki and Mokoli’i, at Hakipu’u and Kualoa in Ko’olaupoko. Because of his dull tooth it is said his bite was a warning of the approach of an enemy. (Sterling and Summers, 1978)

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Unihipili (Hawaii) A spirit-shark (though sometimes it appears as other animals) that does ones bidding, for good or ill. Also, a term for itchy mouth, a shark that will eat anything. (Taylor, 1993)

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Vivi-te-rua-ehu (Tahiti) Shark god that belonged to Chief Moe. The god inhabits a coral reef off the island in the district of Taiarapu. (Henry, 1928)

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Wanba (Iwaidja, Australia) Shark totem. (Spencer, 1968)